Age of the microscope
In the early 19th century, better quality achromatic microscopes created the new field of histology - the microscopic study of cells and tissues - which led to a number of neurological revelations. Czech anatomist Johann Purkinje was the first to describe a neuron in 1837. He went on to detail particularly large neurons (now called Purkinje cells) with branching, thread-like extensions in the cerebellum.
In 1863, German anatomist Otto Deiters described these extensions (later known as dendrites), which conduct messages to neurons, and also identified the cell's axons - thin fibres that conduct messages away from neurons. The first anatomical proof that different parts of the brain performed specific functions was presented in the early 1860s by French anatomist Paul Broca. He discovered that aphasia (the inability to understand and formulate language) was linked to lesions in part of the frontal lobe of the brain (later named Broca's area after conducting autopsies on recently deceased patients).
During the 1870s, Italian biologist and pioneering neuroanatomist Camillo Golgi produced detailed descriptions of the spinal cord and the brain's olfactory lobe, cerebellum, and hippocampus. In 1873, he invented a new staining technique using silver nitrate, which showed the intricate structure of neural cells on a microscope slide much more clearly. This was the second great technological enabler.
Golgi went on to propose that the brain is made up of a single network (or reticulum) of nerve fibres, through which signals pass unimpeded. This reticular theory was challenged at the time by Spanish neuroscientist Santiago Ramon y Cajal, who argued that the nervous system is a collection of many individual, but interconnected, cells. Cajal's view came to be known as the "neuron doctrine". Supported by Sherrington, this theory was proved to be correct in the 1950s, when new electron microscopes were able to show the connections between cells.
2026 - АМПС 1 день
2026 - АМПС 1 день
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Camillo Golgi's staining technique using silver nitrate was widely accepted without challenge.
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What did Santiago Ramon y Cajal's theory come to be known as?
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What did Camillo Golgi propose about the structure of the brain?
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Paul Broca linked memory loss to lesions in the hippocampus.
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Choose the correct statement...
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Who was the first to describe a neuron in 1837?
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Which term describes the study of cells and tissues under a microscope?
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What technology in the 1950s helped to prove the neuron doctrine?
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What part of the brain did Paul Broca link to language processing?
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What are the extensions of neurons that conduct messages to the cell called?
Питання 11
A 38-year-old man was admitted to the emergency unit of a hospital with poisoning caused by an anticholinesterase insecticide. What muscarinic antagonist should be prescribed in this case?
Питання 12
A 25-year-old woman diagnosed with myasthenia gravis was prescribed a drug by a neurologist to improve her muscle function. Administering of the drug was accompanied by increased salivary gland secretion, lacrimation, sweating, and diarrhea. What drug was prescribed by the doctor in this case?
Питання 13
What ions take part in the reabsorption of glucose in the lumen of the renal tubule in its proximal part?
Питання 14
A 5-year-old child developed chills, fever of 39°C, agitation, and vomiting. Nuchal rigidity was detected. On the third day after the onset, the child died. Autopsy of the body reveals thickened, dull, yellow-green pia mater. Microscopically, the pia mater was infiltrated by neutrophilic leukocytes with some lymphocytes and monocytes. What disease occurred in the child?
Питання 15
A 25-year-old man has been hospitalized to the trauma unit with an open fracture of the humerus, severe bleeding, and damage to the blood vessel that runs alongside the radial nerve in the canal on the shoulder. What vessel has most likely been damaged in this case?
Питання 16
Autopsy of the body of a 49-year-old woman, who had community-acquired pneumonia and died of pneumococcal sepsis, revealed up to 700 mL of turbid foul-smelling greenish-yellow fluid in the left pleural cavity. The pleural layers are dull and plethoric. What pathological process occurred in the pleural cavity of the deceased woman?
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A 33-year-old man was in a car accident and died of acute asphyxia a few minutes later. Autopsy reveals air in the right chambers of his heart. What pathological condition has likely caused the patient's death in this case?
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What acid-base imbalance can be observed in patients with accumulation of ketone bodies in blood serum?
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A 26-year-old man has been diagnosed with anemia against the background of chronic gastritis with deficiency of intrinsic Castle factor. What type of anemia is most likely in this patient?
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A 26-year-old woman presents with elevated blood glucose levels, which indicates insufficient functional activity of certain pancreatic cells. Name these cells.
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A 36-year-old woman came to an allergologist with complaints of rhinitis that intensifies in the spring during the flowering period. She has been diagnosed with allergic rhinitis. What changes will be observed in her leukocyte formula in this pathological condition?
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A boy has a congenital inguinal hernia. What testicular membrane is malformed in this case, causing this pathological condition?
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What is the function of the goblet cells in the pseudostratified ciliated epithelium of the bronchi?
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A 48-year-old woman developed a type I anaphylactic reaction 5 minutes after receiving local anesthesia with lidocaine solution for tooth extraction. What is the drug of choice for this pathological condition?
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A 65-year-old man diagnosed with acute heart failure needs to be prescribed a loop diuretic as a component of his complex treatment. What drug should be prescribed to this patient?
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A 54-year-old man presents with enlarged supraclavicular lymph nodes on the left. For diagnostic purposes, one of the lymph nodes was removed for histological examination. Signet ring cell carcinoma was detected. What is the most likely location of the primary tumor in this case?
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As a result of a person's prolonged stay in the mountains at the altitude of 1000 m above sea level, the oxygen capacity of this person's blood has increased. This phenomenon is observed due to the increased formation of a certain substance. Name this substance.
Питання 28
Autopsy of the body of a man who died of chroniosepsis reveals skeletal muscle atrophy and brown atrophy of the myocardium and liver. What pigment has likely accumulated in the body?
Питання 29
The metabolism of these two amino acids is closely connected to the metabolism of folic acid derivatives. Name these amino acids.
Питання 30
A 25-year-old woman diagnosed with pneumonia has been hospitalized into the therapy unit of a hospital. According to the patient's medical history, the disease onset was acute, with fever of 39°C observed for two days in a row, chills, weakness, and dry cough. What inflammatory modulator has the properties of an endogenous pyrogen?
Питання 31
What happens when blood pressure and stimulation of baroreceptors and atrial volume receptors are decreased?
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A 20-year-old woman has been diagnosed with AIDS. What cell population is the most susceptible to human immunodeficiency virus?
Питання 33
What types of cells take part in the initial presentation of antigens to T lymphocytes?
Питання 34
Into what anatomical area does the frontal sinus open through the ethmoid bone?
Питання 35
There are two different forms of Down syndrome: trisomy and translocation. What method can be used to tell apart these two forms?
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A histological preparation of the wall of the small intestine shows grouped cells at the bottom of the crypts. The apical part of these cells contains large acidophilic secretory granules. The cytoplasm is basophilic. Name these cells.
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Examination of a patient has determined that the tumor irritates a certain nucleus, located in the medulla oblongata. This nucleus is common for the cranial nerves IX, X, and XI. Name this nucleus.
Питання 38
Organophosphorus compounds (highly toxic nerve agents) inhibit acetylcholinesterase by forming covalent bonds with the OH groups of serine in the active site of the enzyme. What type of inhibition is characteristic of this class of compounds?
Питання 39
At the intrauterine stage of development, a large arterial duct (ductus Botalli) functions in the vascular system of the fetus. After birth, this duct transforms into the ligamentum arteriosum. What does it connect?
Питання 40
A 35-year-old woman developed generalized edema during complete alimentary fasting (with water). What pathogenetic factor is the main one in this case?
Питання 41
What apatite makes up the majority of the crystalline phase in the mineral component of hard dental tissues?
Питання 42
A 46-year-old man has been diagnosed with atrophy of the lateral rectus muscle of the eye. What nerve is most likely to be damaged in this case?
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What parameter determines the speed of excitation conduction through nerve fibers?
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The morphology of normal human autosomes (non-sex chromosomes) is being studied at sufficient magnification. The S-phase in the cell was normal. How many chromatids will one chromosome have at the metaphase stage of mitosis?
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A patient has been diagnosed with classical hemophilia A. What factor is deficient in this case, causing this pathology?
Питання 46
Examination of a patient detects accumulation of sphingomyelins in the cell lysosomes of the patient's liver, spleen, lungs, bone marrow, and brain, caused by the lack of sphingomyelinase enzyme. What pathology is most likely in this patient?
Питання 47
A phthisiologist has prescribed a semi-synthetic antibiotic to a patient with tuberculosis. This drug has a bactericidal effect on Mycobacterium tuberculosis, because it inhibits RNA synthesis. However, the doctor has warned the patient that his saliva, sputum, and tear fluid may color red as a result. What drug has been prescribed by the doctor?
Питання 48
35-year-old man came to a gastroenterologist with complaints of belching, a feeling of overfilled stomach, nausea, lack of appetite, and nocturnal epigastric pain. The doctor suspects a gastric ulcer caused by H. pylori invasion. What rapid noninvasive diagnostic test should the patient be referred for, to confirm the diagnosis?
Питання 49
A geneticist examined a pregnant woman and determined that she has monozygotic twins. What process has resulted in the development of twins?
Питання 50
Microscopy shows that the parenchyma of an organ is divided into lobules by layers of connective tissue. Each lobule consists of a cortical substance that stains darker in histological preparations and a medullary substance that stains lighter and contains epithelial cells. What organ has such morphological features?